The Concorde was developed by the United Kingdom and France as part of the first major cooperative aircraft design venture between two European countries. In 1962 the U.K. and France signed a treaty to share costs and risks in the aircraft's production.
Components for Concorde were manufactured in several locations in the UK and France, and there were two assembly lines, one at Filton and one at Toulouse. The first British prototype made its first flight from Filton on 9th April 1969, 38 days after the French prototype.
Concorde is a British–French turbojet-powered supersonic passenger airliner that was operated until 2003. It had a maximum speed over twice the speed of sound, at Mach 2.04 (1,354 mph or 2,180 km/h at cruise altitude), with seating for 92 to 128 passengers. First flown in 1969, Concorde entered service in 1976 and operated for 27 years. It is one of only two supersonic transports to have been operated commercially; the other is the Soviet-built Tupolev Tu 144, which operated in the late 1970s.
Concorde was jointly developed and manufactured by Sud-Aviation (later Aérospatiale) and the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) under an Anglo-French treaty. Twenty aircraft were built, including six prototypes and development aircraft. airfrance and British Airways were the only airlines to purchase and fly Concorde. The aircraft was used mainly by wealthy passengers who could afford to pay a high price in exchange for the aircraft's speed and luxury service. For example, in 1997, the round-trip ticket price from New York to London was $7,995 (equivalent to $12,700 in 2019), more than 30 times the cost of the cheapest option to fly this route.
The original programme cost estimate was £70 million. The programme experienced huge overruns and delays, with the program eventually costing £1.3 billion. It was this extreme cost that became the main factor in the production run being much smaller than anticipated. Later, another factor, which affected the viability of all supersonic transportation programmes, was that supersonic flight could be used only on ocean-crossing routes, to prevent sonic boom disturbance over populated areas. With only seven airframes being operated by the British and French, the per-unit cost was impossible to recoup, so the French and British governments absorbed the development costs. British Airways and Air France were able to operate Concorde at a profit after purchasing their aircraft from their respective governments at a steep discount in comparison to the program's development and procurement costs.
Among other destinations, Concorde flew regular transatlantic flights from London's Heathrow aviation and Paris's Charles de gulley airport to JFK international airport, Washingtons airport in Virginia and Grantly Adams airport in Barbados; it flew these routes in less than half the time of other airliners.
Concorde won the 2006 Great British Design Quest, organised by the BBC and the design museum of London, beating other well-known designs such as the BMC Mini, the miniskirt, the jaguar e tyre, the London tube map and the Supermarine spitfire The type was retired in 2003, three years after the crash of airfrance in 4590, in which all passengers and crew were killed. The general downturn in the commercial aviation industry after the Sept 11attacks in 2001 and the end of maintenance support for Concorde by Airbus (the successor company of Aérospatiale) also contributed to the retirement.
Early studies
The origins of the Concorde project date to the early 1950s, when Arnold Hall, director of the royal aircraft establishment (RAE), asked Morein Morgans to form a committee to study the supersonic transport (SST) concept. The group met for the first time in February 1954 and delivered their first report in April 1955.
At the time it was known that the drag at supersonic speeds was strongly related to the span of the wing. This led to the use of very short-span, very thin trapezoidal wings such as those seen on the control surfaces of many missiles, or in aircraft like the Lockheed 104 starfighter or the Avro 730 that the team studied. The team outlined a baseline configuration that looked like an enlarged Avro 730.
This same short span produced very little lift at low speed, which resulted in extremely long take-off runs and frighteningly high landing speeds. In an SST design, this would have required enormous engine power to lift off from existing runways, and to provide the fuel needed, "some horribly large aeroplanes" resulted. Based on this, the group considered the concept of an SST infeasible and instead suggested continued low-level studies into supersonic aerodynamics.
Supersonic Transport Air Committee
On 1 October 1956, the ministry of supply asked Morgan to form a new study group, the Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee (STAC) (sometimes referred to as the Supersonic Transport Advisory Committee), with the explicit goal of developing a practical SST design and finding industry partners to build it. At the very first meeting, on 5 November 1956, the decision was made to fund the development of a testbed aircraft to examine the low-speed performance of the slender delta, a contract that eventually produced the handly page This aircraft would ultimately demonstrate safe control at speeds as low as 69 mph (111 km/h), about one by third that of the F-104 Starfighter.
STAC stated that an SST would have economic performance similar to existing subsonic types. Although they would burn more fuel in cruise, they would be able to fly more sorties in a given period of time, so fewer aircraft would be needed to service a particular route. This would remain economically advantageous as long as fuel represented a small percentage of operational costs, as it did at the time.
STAC suggested that two designs naturally fell out of their work, a transatlantic model flying at about Mach 2, and a shorter-range version flying at perhaps Mach 1.2. Morgan suggested that a 150-passenger transatlantic SST would cost about £75 to £90 million to develop and be in service in 1970. The smaller 100 passengers short-range version would cost perhaps £50 to £80 million, and be ready for service in 1968. To meet this schedule, the development would need to begin in 1960, with production contracts let in 1962. Morgan strongly suggested that the US was already involved in a similar project and that if the UK failed to respond it would be locked out of an airliner market that he believed would be dominated by SST aircraft. In 1959, a study contract was awarded to Hawker Siddeley and bristol for preliminary designs based on the slender delta concept, which developed as the HSA.1000 and Bristol 198. Armstrong Whitworth also responded with an internal design, the M-Wing, for the lower-speed shorter-range category. Even at this early time, both the STAC group and the government were looking for partners to develop the designs. In September 1959, Hawker approached Lockheed, and after the creation of British aircraft corporation in 1960, the former Bristol team immediately started talks with Boeing, General dynamics, Douglas aircraft and sud aviation.
Naming
Reflecting the treaty between the British and French governments that led to Concorde's construction, the name Concorde is from the French word Concorde, which has an English equivalent, concord. Both words mean agreement, harmony or union. The name was officially changed to Concord by Harold Macmillan in response to a perceived slight by Charles de Gaulle. At the French roll-out in Toulouse in late 1967,] the British Government minister if technology tony Benn, announced that he would change the spelling back to Concorde. This created a nationalist uproar that died down when Benn stated that the suffixed "e" represented "Excellence, England, Europe and cordialle". In his memoirs, he recounts a tale of a letter from an irate Scotsman claiming: "[Y]ou talk about 'E' for England, but part of it is made in Scotland." Given Scotland's contribution of providing the nose cone for the aircraft, Benn replied, "it was also 'E' for 'Écosse' (the French name for Scotland) – and I might have added 'e' for extravagance and 'e' for escalation as well!" Concorde also acquired an unusual nomenclature for an aircraft. In common usage in the United Kingdom, the type is known as "Concorde" without an article, rather than "the Concorde" or "a Concorde".
General features
Concorde is an ogival delta-winged aircraft with four Olympus engines based on those employed in the RAF's Avro Vulcan strategic bomber. It is one of the few commercial aircraft to employ a tailless. Concorde was the first airliner to have an (in this case, analogue) fly by wire flight-control system; the avionics system Concorde used was unique because it was the first commercial aircraft to employ hybrid circuit. The principal designer for the project was Pierre Satre, with Sir Archibald Russel as his deputy.
Concorde pioneered the following technologies:
For high speed and optimisation of flight:
Double delta-shaped wings.
Variable engine air intake ramp system controlled by digital computers.
supercruise capability.
Thrust-by-wire engines, the predecessor of today's FADEC-controlled engines.
Droop nose for better landing visibility.
For weight-saving and enhanced performance:
Mach 2.02 (~2,154 km/h or 1,338 mph) cruising speed for optimum fuel consumption (supersonic drag minimum and turbojet engines are more efficient at higher speed) Fuel consumption at Mach 2 (2,120 km/h; 1,320 mph) and at altitude of 60,000 feet (18,000 m) was 4,800 US gallons per hour (18,000 L/h).
Mainly aluminium construction using a high-temperature alloy similar to that developed for aero-engine pistons. This material gave low weight and allowed conventional manufacture (higher speeds would have ruled out aluminium)
Full-regime autopilot and autothrottle allowing "hands-off" control of the aircraft from climb out to the landing
Fully electrically controlled analogue fly by wire flight controls systems
A high-pressure hydraulic system using 28 MPa (4,100 psi) for lighter hydraulic components, tripled independent systems ("Blue", "Green", and "Yellow") for redundancy, with an emergency ram air turbine (RAT) stored in the port-inner elevon jack fairing supplying "Green" and "Yellow" as a backup.
Complex air data computer (ADC) for the automated monitoring and transmission of aerodynamic measurements (total pressure, static pressure, angle of attack, side-slip).
Fully electrically controlled analogue brake by wire system
Pitch trim by shifting fuel fore-and-aft for the centre of gravity (CoG) control at the approach to Mach 1 and above with no drag penalty. Pitch trimming by fuel transfer had been used since 1958 on the B-58 supersonic bomber.
Parts made using "sculpture milling", reducing the part count while saving weight and adding strength.
No APU, as Concorde would only visit large airports where ground air start crats are available.
powerplant
A symposium titled "Supersonic-Transport Implications" was hosted by the Royal aeronautical society on 8 December 1960. Various views were put forward on the likely type of powerplant for a supersonic transport, such as podded or buried installation and turbojet or ducted-fan engines. Boundary layer management in the podded installation was put forward as simpler with only an inlet cone but Dr Seddon of the RAE saw "a future in a more sophisticated integration of shapes" in a buried installation. Another concern highlighted the case with two or more engines situated behind a single intake. An intake failure could lead to a double or triple engine failure. The advantage of the ducted fan over the turbojet was reduced airport noise but with considerable economic penalties with its larger cross-section producing excessive drag. At that time it was considered that the noise from a turbojet optimised for supersonic cruise could be reduced to an acceptable level using noise suppressors as used on subsonic jets.
The powerplant configuration selected for Concorde, and its development to a certificated design, can be seen in the light of the above symposium topics (which highlighted airfield noise, boundary layer management and interactions between adjacent engines) and the requirement that the powerplant, at Mach 2, tolerates combinations of pushovers, sideslips, pull-ups and throttle slamming without surging. Extensive development testing with design changes and changes to intake and engine control laws would address most of the issues except airfield noise and the interaction between adjacent powerplants at speeds above Mach 1.6 which meant Concorde "had to be certified aerodynamically as a twin-engined aircraft above Mach 1.6".
Structural issues
Due to its high speeds, large forces were applied to the aircraft during banks and turns and caused twisting and distortion of the aircraft's structure. In addition, there were concerns over maintaining precise control at supersonic speeds. Both of these issues were resolved by active ratio changes between the inboard and outboard elevons, varying at differing speeds including supersonic. Only the innermost elevons, which are attached to the stiffest area of the wings, were active at high speed. Additionally, the narrow fuselage meant that the aircraft flexed. This was visible from the rear passengers' viewpoints.
When any aircraft passes the critical mach of that particular airframe, the centre of pressure shifts rearwards. This causes a pitch down moment on the aircraft if the centre of gravity remains where it was. The engineers designed the wings in a specific manner to reduce this shift, but there was still a shift of about 2 metres (6 ft 7 in). This could have been countered by the use of trim controls, but at such high speeds, this would have dramatically increased drag. Instead, the distribution of fuel along the aircraft was shifted during acceleration and deceleration to move the centre of gravity, effectively acting as an auxiliary trim control.
Some important points about Concorde
The Concorde, the world's fastest commercial jet, had enjoyed an exemplary safety record up to that point, with no crashes in the plane's 31-year history. Air France Flight 4590 left DeGaulle Airport for New York carrying nine crew members and 96 German tourists who were planning to take a cruise to Ecuador.
The court ruled that the crash was caused by a piece of metal left on the runway after falling from a Continental jet. Investigators said this caused a tyre-burst in the Concorde, which in turn ruptured a fuel tank.
The jet could fly at over twice the speed of sound and get between Paris and New York in under three-and-a-half hours. But the disaster could have been avoided - is it wasn't for a rogue piece of metal less than the size of a penny.
All 100 passengers, nine crew, and four people on the ground died when the Concorde crashed on July 25, 2000. Air France Concorde Flight 4590 takes off from Charles de Gaulle Airport in Paris, with fire trailing from its engine on the left-wing in this July 25, 2000 file photo.
on April 1, 2019, Emirates announced that they would be re-launching the famous supersonic jet, the Concorde into service in 2022, just three years from now.
The passengers on the London flight, all invited guests of the airline, included actress Joan Collins, supersonic frequent flier Sir David Frost and supermodel Christie Brinkley. "I couldn't resist one more chance to just pop over to London," Brinkley said before boarding. The man at the controls was Capt.
Supersonic aircraft were developed in the second half of the twentieth century and have been used almost entirely for research and military purposes. Only two, Tupolev Tu-144 (first flight - December 31, 1968) and the Concorde (first flight - March 2, 1969), ever entered service for civil use as airliners.
Cruising at Mach 2 -- or 1,350 mph -- at 60,000 feet, Concorde flew five miles above and 800 mph faster than the subsonic 747s plodding across the Atlantic. The radio chatter between aircraft could get interesting, according to Tye.
The Concorde brought a $17.3-million profit to British Airways last year and a profit of $8.8 million to Air France in 1984, the most recent year for which figures were available. British Airways didn't record profits from the Concorde until 1982, and Air France until 1983.
Of those 20, one crashed, one was scrapped, and 17 are preserved and can be visited, or seen from very close in museums or open-air exhibitions. (The Barbados Concorde Experience, in the Caribbean country, is closed and its Concorde cannot be visited.)
Droop Nose
But Concorde's long, pointed nose had a hinge. As the plane took off, landed, and taxied, the pilots tilted its nose forward so that they could see the runway. For supersonic flight, the nose was hydraulically lifted, streamlining the plane's shape and allowing it to efficiently pierce the air.
On July 25, 2000, the Concorde punctured a tire during takeoff for Air France Flight 4590. 113 people died. Though failure happened shortly after takeoff, it was due to a problem specific to Concorde tires. The plane was grounded, until November of 2001.
The Concorde was developed by the United Kingdom and France as part of the first major cooperative aircraft design venture between two European countries. In 1962 the U.K. and France signed a treaty to share costs and risks in the aircraft's production.
Wikimedia/Daniel Schwen Only 20 Concordes were ever built, six of which were prototypes and development aircraft, meaning that only 14 were actually used commercially.
And according to Boeing, the 747-8I is the world's fastest commercial jet. This plane can reach an impressive speed of Mach 0.86; it is currently in service with several major commercial airlines such as Air China, Korean Air and Lufthansa.
Concorde was unique in so many ways. For instance, there were more astronauts than there were Concorde pilots. This elite group of flight and cabin crew were numbered in their hundreds. Despite its high fare, it was the preferred means of travel for many transatlantic commuters.
For more than three decades, the Concorde flew the earth's airways with no crashes, no deaths and no injuries more serious than bumps and bruises from occasional evacuations after nonfatal incidents. That means that on the industry's standard safety measure, "hull losses" per million flights, it scored a perfect zero.
The Real Reason Why the Supersonic Passenger Jet Failed. ... After 27 years of service, the world's most famous aircraft, the Concorde, was retired. Air France was the first to ground their Concorde followed quickly by British Airways, putting an end to supersonic passenger flight, at least for the time being.
The Concorde had limited range compared to many subsonic airliners, and flying to Venezuela, Mexico and Brazil required refuelling — in the Azores, Washington, and Dakar, Senegal, respectively.
Why was Concorde retired? Air France and British Airways blamed low passenger numbers and rising maintenance costs. Passenger numbers fell after an Air France Concorde crashed minutes after taking off from Paris in July 2000, killing all 109 people on board and four on the ground.
Criminal investigation
French authorities began a criminal investigation of Continental Airlines, whose plane dropped the debris on the runway, in March 2005, and that September, Henri Perrier, the former chief engineer of the Concorde division at Aerospatiale at the time of the first test flight in 1969 and the programme director in the 1980s and early 1990s, was placed under formal investigation.
In March 2008, Bernard Farret, a deputy prosecutor in Pontoise, outside Paris, asked judges to bring manslaughter charges against Continental Airlines and two of its employees – John Taylor, the mechanic who replaced the wear strip on the DC-10, and his manager Stanley Ford – alleging negligence in the way the repair was carried out. Continental denied the charges and claimed in court that it was being used as a scapegoat by the BEA. The airline suggested that the Concorde "was already on fire when its wheels hit the titanium strip and that around 20 first-hand witnesses had confirmed that the plane seemed to be on fire immediately after it began its take-off roll".
At the same time charges were laid against Henri Perrier, head of the Concorde program at Aérospatiale, Jacques Hérubel, Concorde's chief engineer, and Claude Frantzen, head of DGCA, the French airline regulator. It was alleged that Perrier, Hérubel and Frantzen knew that the plane's fuel tanks could be susceptible to damage from foreign objects, but nonetheless allowed it to fly.
The trial ran in a Parisian court from February to December 2010. Continental Airlines was found criminally responsible for the disaster. It was fined €200,000 ($271,628) and ordered to pay Air France €1 million. Taylor was given a 15-month suspended sentence, while Ford, Perrier, Hérubel and Frantzen were cleared of all charges. The court ruled that the crash resulted from a piece of metal from a Continental jet that was left on the runway; the object punctured a tyre on the Concorde and then ruptured a fuel tank. The convictions were overturned by a French appeals court in November 2012, thereby clearing Continental and Taylor of criminal responsibility.
The Parisian court also ruled that Continental would have to pay 70% of any compensation claims. As Air France had paid out €100 million to the families of the victims, Continental could be made to pay its share of that compensation payout. The French appeals court, while overturning the criminal rulings by the Parisian court, affirmed the civil ruling and left Continental liable for the compensation claims.
